The Sacred State: Examining the Relationship Between Politics and Religion  

"Those who say religion has nothing to do with politics do not know what religion means." ~ Mahatma Gandhi

The relationship between religion and politics is a long and well-established one. Politics is shaped by the morals and values communities and societies wish to uphold; religion acts as a catalyst for these values and, in turn, deeply affects the policies and laws people make or vote for; therefore, one cannot deny the intersection and influence between the two. Today, this intersection grows wider as more people migrate and immigrate, and thus the morals and values that communities and societies want to uphold start to clash. Making it more important than ever that we understand the link the two have and how profoundly they affect and inspire each other. However, one must also recognize that this link is not new, nor is it unexplainable; for centuries, politics has been swayed by religion, and at times, politics has given rise to an entirely new religion or sect. Ultimately, it is evident that both religion and politics have a great influence on each other, and although modern democratic states advocate for the separation of church and state, the impact religion has made is entrenched in various countries' constitutions and functions; similarly, personal religious beliefs still affect legislation, elections, and public policy. 

"Those who cannot remember the past are doomed to repeat it." ~George Santayana.

Earliest records of written law influenced by some form of god or deity date back to the 4th century BCE, to the code of Urukagina, where a set of laws — which survives in the present day only through references in other ancient works — was sent down to Urukagina, as he believed he was divinely appointed. The Code of Ur-Nammu, on the other hand, is the oldest surviving piece of law, dating to around 2100–2050 BCE. It begins with a prologue that attributes his power (the ability to rule the people) and his law to the gods, such as Nanna (the moon god) and Utu (the sun god). Ur-Nammu then goes on to claim that he was chosen as king by divine will and decree and that his purpose is to establish equality and eliminate violence and strife in the land. Ur-Nammu aimed to achieve this by imposing penalties and fines (much like modern-day law), unless it was a capital offense, for which one could face more severe physical punishment.

In contrast, the Code of Hammurabi aimed to achieve “peace” in the land in a much more aggressive way, such as putting to death anyone who falsely accused someone of a crime but failed to prove it. Similarly, the famous phrase “an eye for an eye," where if a person caused the loss of a body part for anyone, the same would be done back to them as punishment, was derived from said code. Thus far, all these codes share a key characteristic, that being that all of them attribute their power, authority, and successes to god, using it (religion and god) not only as a major influence when deriving the laws but also to legitimize their reign and rule over the land and its inhabitants.
In the same way that the codes were a ‘consequence’ of the gods, the foundations of the democratic system in Greece were similarly profoundly influenced by the gods. Not only did they legitimize it through the gods, but they also made politics a religious act rather than a civic one. Political gatherings, for one, began with animal sacrifices, purification rites, and prayers all for the gods. They also personified democracy into a goddess named 'Demokratia'. Moreover, they made it a severe offense not only under the law but also under the gods if one broke the civic oath or didn't follow through with civic duty.“Religion is a basic component of our legal bloodstream.” ~ Francis J. Powers  

Religion has long played a significant role in the legal order of many civilizations throughout history, with many of the world's earliest laws deriving their authority from divine command, such as those of Ur-Nammu and Hammurabi. These codes established a precedent for the interweaving of religion and law that persists to this day.

During the Middle Ages, Christianity became one of the leading forces in shaping early European law. However, it wasn't as simple as most think; in fact, it was quite the opposite. Until around 313 CE, Christians were persecuted; Emperors such as Decius (in 250 AD) and Diocletian (in 303 AD) issued edicts that affected the empire-wide, forcing citizens to sacrifice to traditional Roman gods while criminalizing Christian assembly and gathering. It wasn't until Emperor Constantine legalized Christianity through the Edict of Milan (313 CE). Following this, the emperor Theodosius I issued the Edict of Thessalonica in 380 CE, which recognized Christianity as the official and legal religion of the Roman Empire. Consequently, the empire also restricted and targeted the practices and beliefs of other religious groups, a common practice during the Roman Empire. Chronologically, by the medieval period, Canon law not only influenced major aspects of daily life but also became a major legal and administrative system that shaped both public and private life. Similarly, the Ecclesiastical courts exercised legal jurisdiction over religious matters, and monarchs often relied on the church to legitimize their authority and the laws they enacted, underscoring the intertwined nature of religion, politics, and power.

On the other hand, Islamic law (also known as Sharia law), which is primarily derived from the Quran and Sunnah (the teachings and practices of the Prophet Muhammad), is among the most comprehensive religious laws. Unlike Western legal traditions, Sharia law encompasses both religious and civil law, regulating matters such as inheritance, ownership, and commerce as well as religious tax (zakat), pilgrimage (Hajj), and fasting (sawm). Although the application of the law differs between countries in terms of how it's enforced, it continues to be one of the most common legal frameworks across the Middle East, with many countries recognizing Islam as the state religion and basing their whole legal system on Islamic law, re-emphasizing the profound influence religion can have on politics and law.

Likewise, Judaism interacts with the law in a deeply influential manner through Halakha, the body of Jewish religious law derived from the Torah and centuries of rabbinical interpretation. Similar to Islamic law (Sharia), Halakha extends beyond religious practice to regulate many aspects of daily life, including dietary laws, marriage and divorce, moral conduct, civic responsibilities, and business ethics. Although no country formally recognizes Judaism as its official state religion, Halakha has nevertheless had a profound influence on legal systems, particularly in Israel, where it continues to govern areas such as marriage and divorce while shaping legal debates and public policy. This further demonstrates the enduring relationship between religion, law, and political institutions.

Furthermore, the Indian sub-continent, although secular, is still deeply influenced by Hinduism and its practices. Hinduism is believed to have originated near the Indus River valley, located between modern-day India and Pakistan; this location was a central part of the religion's early development, with the name Hindu being directly derived from Sindhu, the Sanskrit name for the Indus River. As Hinduism developed, so did its influence on society. Known as Dharmaśāstra – hindu law – historically it regulated inheritance, marriage, property ownership, and social obligations however it also split people into what is known as the caste system which was originated around 1500-500 BCE and was meant to separate people into four distinct classes called Varana: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), and Vaishyas (merchants), followed by Shudras (laborers) based on skill set and merit however over time it evolved to being a system solely based on birth. This system was used in India up until India's independence in the 1950s; although it was formally abolished, it still has a lasting, crippling effect. 

In modern Indian society, the effects of the caste system are extremely prevalent through social norms, such as marriage, with 62% saying it is very important to stop men in their community from marrying outside the caste, and 64% reiterating the same for women. In addition,  68% of Indians identify as lower caste: 34% as Scheduled Castes/Tribes and 35% as Other/Most Backward Classes; 30% identify as General Category, including 4% Brahmin. Additionally, 82% of Indians said they had not personally faced caste discrimination in the previous 12 months, but that still means a sizable minority did report it. These statistics clearly show how the caste system continues to influence social norms such as marriage and friendships, with 24% of Indians saying all their close friends are from the same caste, while 46% say most of their close friends are from the same caste. 

Collectively, these examples reaffirm that religion has historically been far more than a system of spiritual belief; it has served as a foundation for legal systems, a justification for political authority, and a means of social order. Whether one looks at canon law in medieval Europe, Sharia law in muslim majority states, Halakha's continued influence on personal status law, or the enduring legacy of Hindu traditions and the caste system on India, religion has consistently been proven to extend past the private personal sphere to the shaping of law, governance, and everyday life. Despite many modern states advocating the separation of church and state (religion and government) and a move towards secularism, the influence of religion remains deeply embedded in legal institutions, constitutional principles, and societal values. Moreover, religion must be viewed as more than just personal faith but rather as a profound tool that has historically influenced the development of modern-day legal systems and their implementation across civilizations.

“Religion is so frequently a source of confusion in political life, and so frequently dangerous to democracy, precisely because it introduces absolutes into the realm of relative values.” ~ Reinhold Niebuhr

Although religion has frequently directly influenced the making of laws and policies, it has also affected them indirectly through voting and elections. Rather than directly determining election outcomes, religion guides and shapes the moral values and principles that sway political decisions. As a result, many voters support candidates, policies, or political parties that most closely align with their religious values and beliefs, particularly when it comes to issues regarding things such as abortion, same-sex marriage, immigration, and the role of religion in public life. Similarly, religion continues to influence states that have constitutionally separated religion from politics, such as those of France and Turkey.

Greece, more specifically, Athens, is widely regarded as the birthplace of democracy. Yet when we compare it to modern democracies – ones that heavily push for the separation of church and state – we find that they don't compare, as early Greek democracy was deeply religious and viewed as more of a religious obligation than a political one. Meetings that discussed laws, policies, taxes, in short, political decisions, were commenced by animal sacrifices, prayer, and purification rituals. They sought divine approval from the gods as part of the political decision-making. This not only shows how religion and democratic participation were intertwined from the very beginning, but also reflects how democracy has always been swayed by the religious views of its surroundings.

Moreover, religion reinforced political accountability, with political figures swearing oaths and invoking the gods, making dishonesty illegal and punishable by society and by divine authority. Likewise, ancient festivals such as the Panathenaia and the Dionysia were both political and religious events intended to strengthen unity and civic participation. Rather than dictating how votes were cast, religion gave the moral framework and foundation within which democratic decisions were made, illustrating how inseparable religion and democracy were.

Although contemporary democracies are not as inherently religious as their origins, religion continues to impact electoral behavior by influencing the values voters use to evaluate candidates and policies. One of the clearest examples is the US, where topics such as same-sex marriage, abortion, and religious education have turned from humanitarian and moral questions to political questions, encouraging religious groups and communities to vote and, in turn, vote for candidates and policies that best reflect their religious beliefs. 

One of the clearest examples of this relationship is the debate surrounding abortion, where religious beliefs about the sanctity of human life intersect with political debates concerning bodily autonomy and the extent of government intervention. White Evangelical Christians, as well as White Catholics, for one view abortion as a deeply conflicting moral issue, as they believe life begins at conception; as such, they were inclined to vote for the Republican party that holds more conservative Christian views – a reflection of their own personal beliefs. During his first presidential term (2017-2021), Trump appointed three Supreme Court justices, whose participation in the landmark 2022 decision in Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization resulted in the overturning of Roe v. Wade. Despite widespread criticism of his personal conduct, Trump continued to receive overwhelming support from white Evangelical Protestants and substantial support from white Catholics in the 2024 elections, winning 60-61% of their votes alongside 80-82% of white Evangelical votes. Moreover, Trump won 64% of the votes among monthly churchgoers, supporting the claim that frequent churchgoers strongly backed him. This shows how shared moral and religious values can outweigh a candidate's personal character or qualifications, underscoring the significant influence religion can have on democratic decisions.

Conversely, even countries that built their constitution around secularism or some form of it – such as France and Turkey – still find that they are deeply influenced and affected by religion to some extent. In France, for example, despite a strong commitment to laïcité (state secularism), debates surrounding Islamic dress, religious symbols in schools, public displays of religion, and immigration remain highly contentious and recurring themes of debate that ultimately shape elections. Political parties adopt differing positions on these issues, allowing voters to support candidates whose policies most closely reflect their own religious and cultural values. It is important to note that the principle of laïcité applies to all religions rather than targeting Islam exclusively, as most people think; however, it is most visible in the context of Islamic practices. For example, restrictions on conspicuous religious symbols affect Muslims most visibly, but the principle also applies to large Christian crosses in public schools. Furthermore, same-sex marriage was legalized despite opposition from many Christian groups, and unlike the US, abortion is strongly protected under French law. Ultimately, while modern France was built on secularism, religion continues to influence the laws and policies that are passed; conversely, these policies end up affecting all religious groups, further demonstrating the relationship that religion and politics share. 

Likewise, Turkey, a state, also built on a secular constitution, is still deeply affected by religion, especially in recent decades. The rise of political parties with Islamically aligned views has influenced policies concerning, for example, education, the role of religion in public institutions, and general social norms. One example of this would be the debate concerning the Islamic headcovering, where in 2008, the parliament tried to lift the university headscarf ban, and the move triggered huge protests from secular groups and a constitutional confrontation. Consequently, in 2013, Turkey lifted the ban on many civil service jobs, which supporters called normalization but critics saw as a blow to the secular republic. Beyond the headscarf, we find that the Diyanet – officially known as the presidency of religious affairs, a powerful state-run institution in Turkey – affects Turkish politics through the control and regulation of mosques, the appointment of imams, and the reinforcement of certain governmental positions. Once more, do we understand the relationship that religion can have on secular states, even ones that previously persecuted religion (mainly Islam), in terms of backing and changing policy and political leaders taking more religiously oriented views to sway electoral behavior.

The relationship between religion and voting behavior demonstrates that religion's influence over democratic and secular systems has evolved rather than disappeared. In ancient Greece, religion and democracy were closely intertwined, with festivals and meetings including prayer and political decision-making, and civic duty seen as a religious and political obligation. On the other hand, contemporary democracies are less directly influenced by religious beliefs and instead indirectly impacted through population make-up and electoral decisions concerning candidates and policies. Conclusively, religion remains one of the most enduring influences on political behavior, despite states adopting democratic secularism; the values that guide electoral decision-making continue to reflect the religious traditions people believe in.

“I distrust those people who know so well what God wants them to do, because I notice it always coincides with their own desires.” ~ Susan B. Anthony 

Although it is generally known that everyone is entitled to their own religious beliefs and the right to practice what they deem fit, that acceptance and position only emerged after decades of interreligious fighting, crusades, and wars that were all often justified in the name of religion. The relationship between war and religion is a historically lengthy, complicated, and nuanced one; it is not as simple as most people assume when they say religion causes violence. In reality, wars are usually fought for land, power, and resources, and later justified in the name of religion and divine command. Nevertheless, religion acts as a powerful tool for political leaders to ignite, justify, and frame wars.

One of the earliest and best-recorded examples of a religious war is the First Crusade  (1096-1099), a military expedition led by western christians to reclaim land from muslims after centuries of their expansion. The crusade aimed to reclaim parts of Jerusalem, such as the walled city, along with the church of the Holy Sepulcher, believed to be the site of Jesus Christ’s crucifixion, burial, and resurrection, on the grounds that it was their religious right. However, it was far more than just religion that drove this crusade; during 1095, the political climate in Europe was in turmoil, with nobles and rulers in constant conflict. This crusade gave Pope Urban II an opportunity to channel the fighting into a religious war that would better serve the Latin Church, Western Europe, and the pope himself. Moreover, the Byzantine Empire (the eastern half of the Roman Empire, centered on Constantinople) was under enormous pressure from the Seljuk Turks (a medieval Oghuz Turkic Sunni Muslim dynasty), which gave Urban II an appeal as part of a broader effort to strengthen the papal authority and unite Western Christians behind a common cause. More broadly, the participants in the crusade hoped to loot, acquire property, and/or hold new territories in the east, while knights and nobles hoped to improve their rank, reputation, or influence through the crusade's success. At the same time, the pope portrayed participation in the crusade as a sacred duty that would cleanse one's sins while reaping spiritual rewards, especially for those who died during the expedition. This not only demonstrates how wars can be fought in the name of religion but also how the religion can justify, legitimize, and even reward its participants and deaths. 

Likewise, the European religious wars of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries – most notably the French Wars of Religion, the Thirty Years' War, and the Eighty Years' War – showcase how theological disagreements can coincide with struggles for political authority. In 1517, Martin Luther began a reformation by writing the 95 Theses and challenging church sales that consequently, split Western Christianity into Protestant and Catholic branches, which would then shape Europe for the next century and a half. The French religious wars were a series of destructive civil wars fought by French Catholics against Protestants (Huguenots) from 1562 to 1598. The series of wars was sparked by the massacre of Vassy; however, before the massacre, there was deep religious tension, political instability, and aristocratic rivalry following the rise of French Calvinism. The war was then later intensified by the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. Later came the Eighty Years' War (also known as the Dutch Revolt), which began around 1568 and ended around 1648. The war was fought between the Spanish Habsburgs and the Dutch provinces, with the major cause being religious tensions from the spread of Calvinism and the Spanish attempts to enforce Catholic control. Beyond religious tensions, the Netherlands was experiencing an extreme case of political instability, with provinces under the control of Philip II of Spain growing resentful and tired, and as such, they sought to regain control over their own land through the war. The Thirty Years' War, which took place from 1618 to 1648, was another case in which Protestants and Catholics were in conflict. The war began as a religious dispute, but then quickly broadened into a political and religious war that took place in Germany and the Holy Roman Empire; however, multiple European powers were involved in the war. Although it was a religious war, countries often made decisions that best suited them politically, even if it meant siding with the opposing religious branch. For example, Catholic France supported Protestant states against the Catholic Habsburgs because the weakening of Habsburg influence was seen as more vital than religious unity. Devastatingly, this war resulted in the loss of 4.5 million - 8 million compared to the 600,000 lost in the eighty-year war and the 2 to 4 million deaths in the French religious wars. These European religious wars clearly demonstrate that conflicts framed as purely religious often have deeper political and strategic roots, while religion acts as a tool for public justification and legitimization. 

Religion continues to influence modern-day conflicts, although not directly through theological disagreements; it remains a cause. One example of this would be the Israel-Palestine war, where the land is associated with religious narratives, making territorial disputes feel more absolute than negotiable. Moreover, religious extremist groups on both sides frame the war as justified, giving people a moral escape from guilt and remorse. Likewise, religion strengthens a group identity, making the war feel like a struggle for identity, not just policies and borders. Similarly, sectarian divides, such as Sunni and Shia Muslims, have fueled and intensified conflicts in Iraq, Syria, and Yemen. For example, the 2003 invasion and the collapse of state institutions fueled intensity around Shia-Sunni polarization, especially as militias and political parties around sectarian identity. Although these conflicts are not purely caused by religion, it continues to influence and intensify the conflict through moral escapes, framing political alliances, and justifying conflict. 

On the other hand, religion also serves as a powerful tool for the promotion of peace and accords. A multitude of religious leaders and organizations have mediated, negotiated, and mobilized humanitarian aid during times of war. Examples of this include Martin Luther King Jr., Mahatma Gandhi, and Desmond Tutu, who drew upon religious principles to advocate for peace, reform, and humanitarian aid. More specifically, religious leaders and religious organizations in Sudan and South Sudan have been vital for humanitarian aid and peace negotiations. In late 2025, seven Christian organizations formed the Faith in Action Coalition to strengthen humanitarian responses to conflicts in Sudan. Likewise, in 2025, African religious leaders met in Nairobi and pledged to engage directly with opposing military forces in Sudan through respected religious officials while also coordinating with the United Nations and the African Union in hopes of reaching a treaty or some form of accord. These efforts made by these individuals and organizations highlight how religion has the capacity to be used for the sake of peace and humanism instead of war and violence, depending on how it is interpreted and enacted by religious and political leaders.

Ultimately, the relationship between war and religion is extremely complex and nuanced, with religion acting as both a peacekeeping and violent force, reflecting the broader relationship between politics and religion. While religion most often doesn't act as the sole pillar for war, it instead acts as a moral justification, strengthening group unity, and legitimizing authority. Conversely, the same religions have inspired and advocated for peace, reconciliation, and humanitarian action. As such, religion should not be simply understood as a single cause for either peace or war; instead, it's a driving force that influences both in profound ways.

"Religion and government will both exist in greater purity, the less they are mixed together." ~ James Madison

Despite decades of interaction between religion and politics, the question of whether religion should continue to influence politics in its entirety remains one of the most discussed and debated issues in contemporary society. On the one hand, supporters argue that religion provides a moral framework that promotes justice, cohesion, and social responsibility, while giving society a shared purpose and a solid foundation. Since laws are ultimately based on what societies deem right and wrong through their moral evaluation, many contend that the complete separation of church and state is not only utopian but undesirable. Religious organizations continue to heavily contribute to the economy, healthcare, and education, among others. Additionally, many social reform movements, such as the abolition of slavery, the American civil rights movement, and anti-apartheid in South Africa, were inspired, at least in part, by religious principles and leaders. From this outlook, religion is a great source for civic engagement and public policy while also inspiring peace, justice, and bringing about positive reform and change. 

Conversely, critics argue that the involvement of religion in the political climate poses a significant threat to democratic societies and the ever-evolving modern world. Modern societies are increasingly multicultural and religiously diverse, meaning that laws and legislation based solely on one religion can end up taking the rights and freedom of others, and this has happened with topics such as same-sex marriage, abortion, euthanasia, and freedom of expression, expressing this tension, as religious understandings often oppose or compete with secular understandings in terms of individual liberty and equality. Furthermore, throughout history, religion at times has been used to justify the oppression of certain groups or people, taking away minority rights, suppressing political power, and opposition. In circumstances such as these, religion becomes less of a source of peace and justice and instead does the opposite, taking away rights and bodily autonomy. 

At the same time, the complete separation between religion and politics is arguably impossible. Political decisions reflect the moral values that society seeks to uphold. For billions of people, these moral values are largely, if not entirely, based on religion, and in a democratic society – which heavily depends on citizens engaging and using their personal beliefs to shape the country – one can only expect that these values will be reflected in the electoral system for if we were to suppress religious voters that in itself would be going against the democratic system and equality in general. In fact, the challenge facing contemporary politics isn't if we can erase religion's influence on politics entirely, but instead how we can manage and uphold religious influence without it being a threat to other people, groups, and secular societies.

Ultimately, the modern debate is not whether to choose between secularism and religion but how to balance both. While governments should remain impartial and protect the rights of all, regardless of their personal beliefs and faith, they must also reflect the democratic will of the electorate, which is inevitably influenced by religious beliefs. The historical evidence proves that religion has never truly existed separate from politics, and modern evidence suggests that the relationship between the two hasn't disappeared but instead evolved. So now the question has moved from whether religion influences politics, and instead has become how states and societies should manage the influence in a manner that's still true to secularism, democracy, and individual liberty.

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